The '''Kingdom of Galicia''' was a political entity (5th century - 1833) in South-west Europe and north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. Heir to the Suebic kingdom, himself born in the former Roman province of Galicia (latin Gallaecia), the Kingdom of Galicia is considered the nucleus of origin of the Christian kingdoms born north and west of the Iberian Peninsula. Until the 13th century, the Kingdom was at the center of power of the Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula. In the 12th century, Galicia had a first weakening with the secession of the southern county, which became the Kingdom of Portugal. The rise of the kingdom of Castile, originally single county of Galicia, together with its territorial conquests in Al Andalus, gradually diluted Galicia in the Crown. The arrival of the Catholic Monarchs to the throne eliminated the possibility of political and administrative independence of the kingdom, which nevertheless continued to exist until its demise in the 1833 territorial division of Spain under the regency of Maria Christina of Bourbon and two Sicilies.
Concept and Territory
Since 4th century, important writers of the late Roman Empire (as Hydatius, Paulus Orosius and Isidore of Seville) described the extension of the Roman province (called Gallaecia in Latin), thanks to them we know that the territorial extension of Galicia (larger than the actual territory of the actual autonomous community), being kept during the Middle Ages until the 12th century, with the evolution of Portugal to the status of independent kingdom and the creation of the Leon (historical region).The territory of Galicia from 5th century was described by many roman writers of the time, for example the theologian and historian Paulus Orosius in the early th century in his book Historiarum adversum paganos, explained that:
( latin: Cantabri et Astures Gallaeciae provinciae portio sunt).
"Numantia autem citerioris Hispaniae, haud procul a Vaccaeis et Cantabris
in capite Gallaeciae sita"
"Numantia autem citerioris Hispaniae, haud procul a Vaccaeis et Cantabris
in capite Gallaeciae sita"
Similarly, columnist Hydatius in his Chronicle (''Chronicon''), in the middle of the 5th century, wrote about the "Fields of Galicia" (latin Campos Gallaeciae) the great plain now known as Tierra de Campos in the current Spanish community of Castile and Leon, and he cited many cities in the Roman province of Galicia, what helps to clarify the real extension of it, explaning the location of cities as Cauca in Galicia.
Writers post as Isidore of Seville in the 6th century, continued to report the same extension of Galicia, even under Visigothic domination, he argued in his work "The Etymologies" that:
Writers post as Isidore of Seville in the 6th century, continued to report the same extension of Galicia, even under Visigothic domination, he argued in his work "The Etymologies" that:
"Cantabria and Asturia are located in Galicia"
(latin. regiones sunt partes provinciarum (...) sicut in Gallicia; Cantabria, Asturia).
These authors highlight the polysemy of the concept, with one hand, a wide Galicia whose territory stretched from Cape Finisterre to the current Rioja, a great land mass, where lived Celtic tribes as Gallaeci, Astures and Cantabri among others. And, secondly, the land of the Gallaeci exclusively. This concept has continued over the following centuries, as can be seen in medieval literature which give the name of "Galicia" to the north west of the Iberian Peninsula until the 12th century.
With the arrival of Suebi from Central Europe between years 409 A.C and 411 A.C Galicia (lat.Gallaecia) ceased to be a Roman province, and became a kingdom with its capital in Bracara Augusta (Braga, modern Portugal), a new kingdom that Suebi attempted to expand rapidly to the south at the expense of the Roman Empire, incorporating in their field, and permanently, much of the Roman province of Lusitania, and even managing the Lusitanian capital -Emerita Augusta- (Merida, modern Spain) temporarily in 439 A.C, and even the city of Seville (modern Spain) in 441, both cities were eventually abandoned due to the reaction of the Roman Empire and his Visigoths allies, the battle of the Orbigo River was the most important episode, since it, the Eastern territories of Galicia ceased to be ruled by Suebic kings, and just continued nominally as part of Galicia.
After Battle of Vouille in 507, Visigoths were driven from Gaul (except Septimania) by the Frankish army led by Clovis. After the 5th century, Spain (Hispania) ceased to designate geographically Iberia to refer only to the territory ruled by the Visigoths. For its part, Galicia - even ruled by a Suebian monarchy - joined this new geographic differentiation becoming more of Spain (Hispania). The end of the Suebian monarchy by Visigoths did not change over this new political design of the Iberian Peninsula. The latter was thus divided into two geographical entities, Spain and Galicia, which persist for more than five centuries, was distinguished from one another with phrases such as ''Galletiam et Ispaniam" (Galician and Spanish), ''Hispaniae et Galliciae'' (from Spain and from Galicia), ''Hispaniis et Gallicis regionibus'' (Spanish and Galician regions), etc.. typical formulas throughout the Middle Ages.
Origin: From Roman province to Independent kingdom (410-411).
The origin of the kingdom lies in the 5th century, when Suebi settled permanently in the former Roman province called in Latin ''Gallaecia''. These, led by their king Hermeric (who had signed with the Roman Emperor Honorius a ''foedus''(pact) which conceded them sovereignty in Galicia), have set their capital in the former Bracara Augusta creating the ''Regnum Suevorum'' (Suebi´s Kingdom) or Regnum Galliciensim (Galician Kingdom or Kingdom of Galicia) in 409 A.C.
In 449, the first Suebic king who was born in Galicia, Rechiar (son of Rechila, and grandson of Hermeric), decided to follow the religious beliefs of most of Galicians, Galicia was converted in the first Catholic kingdom in Western-Europe.
A century later, the differences between Gallaeci and Suebi had disappeared, leading to the systematic use in contemporary terms like Galliciensim Regnum ("Galician kingdom"), -used by Gregory of Tours in his work Historia Francorum' (6th century)-, and Regem Galliciae ("king of Galicia") -according to Sigebertus Gembalensis, Rege Suevorum ("king of Suebi") or Galleciae totius provinciae rex (king of whole province of Galicia). Also, bishops as Martin of Braga was recognized as episcopi Gallaecia ("bishop of Galicia"). We can therefore speak from the 5th-6th centuries, the existence of a kingdom of Galicia.
In 585, Leovigild, Visigothic king of Hispania and Septimania, decided to atack the neighbour kingdom of Galicia, getting to destroy political independence that Galicia had since Suebi kings, defeating Andeca, de facto last Suebi king of Galicia, and to Malaric, a Galician lord that tried to recover the independence of Galicia. After it, Suebi and Galicians became to be ruled by Visigothic king, and consequently Galicia became a satellite of the power of Toledo, the capital of the Visigoths after their displacement from Gaul by the Franks. Really, Visigothic government over Galicia was a no abrupt change, and, contrary to what is observed in Lusitania, Galician dioceses (Braga, Porto, Tui, Iria, Britonia, Lugo, Ourense, Astorga, Coimbra, Lamego, Viseu and Idanha) continued to operate with normality.
The territorial organization inherited from previous centuries did not change and the cultural, religious, and aristocratic elite accepted new monarchs. Thus, in the religious councils, such as that held in 589 in Toledo, were presented episcoporum totius Hispaniae, Galliae and Gallaetiae (all bishops of Spain, Gaul, and Galicia). This shows was tripartite political and geographical concept throughout Visigothic government since 585, a variety of differentiating the three entities following documents: fines Span, Gallie, Gallec or Spaniae and Galliae vel Gallitiae, among others. In this context, the remarkable development Fructuosus of Braga´s activity, Galician-Visigothic Bishop, famous for many foundations that he established throughout the west of the Iberian peninsula, generally in places of difficult and austere access such as mountains or islands.
These authors highlight the polysemy of the concept, with one hand, a wide Galicia whose territory stretched from Cape Finisterre to the current Rioja, a great land mass, where lived Celtic tribes as Gallaeci, Astures and Cantabri among others. And, secondly, the land of the Gallaeci exclusively. This concept has continued over the following centuries, as can be seen in medieval literature which give the name of "Galicia" to the north west of the Iberian Peninsula until the 12th century.With the arrival of Suebi from Central Europe between years 409 A.C and 411 A.C Galicia (lat.Gallaecia) ceased to be a Roman province, and became a kingdom with its capital in Bracara Augusta (Braga, modern Portugal), a new kingdom that Suebi attempted to expand rapidly to the south at the expense of the Roman Empire, incorporating in their field, and permanently, much of the Roman province of Lusitania, and even managing the Lusitanian capital -Emerita Augusta- (Merida, modern Spain) temporarily in 439 A.C, and even the city of Seville (modern Spain) in 441, both cities were eventually abandoned due to the reaction of the Roman Empire and his Visigoths allies, the battle of the Orbigo River was the most important episode, since it, the Eastern territories of Galicia ceased to be ruled by Suebic kings, and just continued nominally as part of Galicia.
After Battle of Vouille in 507, Visigoths were driven from Gaul (except Septimania) by the Frankish army led by Clovis. After the 5th century, Spain (Hispania) ceased to designate geographically Iberia to refer only to the territory ruled by the Visigoths. For its part, Galicia - even ruled by a Suebian monarchy - joined this new geographic differentiation becoming more of Spain (Hispania). The end of the Suebian monarchy by Visigoths did not change over this new political design of the Iberian Peninsula. The latter was thus divided into two geographical entities, Spain and Galicia, which persist for more than five centuries, was distinguished from one another with phrases such as ''Galletiam et Ispaniam" (Galician and Spanish), ''Hispaniae et Galliciae'' (from Spain and from Galicia), ''Hispaniis et Gallicis regionibus'' (Spanish and Galician regions), etc.. typical formulas throughout the Middle Ages.
Origin: From Roman province to Independent kingdom (410-411).
The origin of the kingdom lies in the 5th century, when Suebi settled permanently in the former Roman province called in Latin ''Gallaecia''. These, led by their king Hermeric (who had signed with the Roman Emperor Honorius a ''foedus''(pact) which conceded them sovereignty in Galicia), have set their capital in the former Bracara Augusta creating the ''Regnum Suevorum'' (Suebi´s Kingdom) or Regnum Galliciensim (Galician Kingdom or Kingdom of Galicia) in 409 A.C.
In 449, the first Suebic king who was born in Galicia, Rechiar (son of Rechila, and grandson of Hermeric), decided to follow the religious beliefs of most of Galicians, Galicia was converted in the first Catholic kingdom in Western-Europe.
A century later, the differences between Gallaeci and Suebi had disappeared, leading to the systematic use in contemporary terms like Galliciensim Regnum ("Galician kingdom"), -used by Gregory of Tours in his work Historia Francorum' (6th century)-, and Regem Galliciae ("king of Galicia") -according to Sigebertus Gembalensis, Rege Suevorum ("king of Suebi") or Galleciae totius provinciae rex (king of whole province of Galicia). Also, bishops as Martin of Braga was recognized as episcopi Gallaecia ("bishop of Galicia"). We can therefore speak from the 5th-6th centuries, the existence of a kingdom of Galicia.
Visigothic control over the kingdom of Galicia (585-711).
In 585, Leovigild, Visigothic king of Hispania and Septimania, decided to atack the neighbour kingdom of Galicia, getting to destroy political independence that Galicia had since Suebi kings, defeating Andeca, de facto last Suebi king of Galicia, and to Malaric, a Galician lord that tried to recover the independence of Galicia. After it, Suebi and Galicians became to be ruled by Visigothic king, and consequently Galicia became a satellite of the power of Toledo, the capital of the Visigoths after their displacement from Gaul by the Franks. Really, Visigothic government over Galicia was a no abrupt change, and, contrary to what is observed in Lusitania, Galician dioceses (Braga, Porto, Tui, Iria, Britonia, Lugo, Ourense, Astorga, Coimbra, Lamego, Viseu and Idanha) continued to operate with normality."Finally, when the moment was propitious, Leovigild killed his son. After the death of Miro, King of Galicia, his son Eboric and his son-in-law Andeca from the kingdom (Galicia) with which he was fighting, Leovigild subjugated Suebi and all people of Galicia under the power of the Visigoths."
The Visigothic monarchy known in his later years a pronounced decline, due in large part to the decrease in trade and thus a sharp reduction in monetary circulation, direct control by the Muslims in the early 8th century on the south Mediterranean. The ancient Galicia was also affected and Fructuosus of Braga, for his denunciation of general cultural decline and loss of the momentum of previous periods, causing some discontent in the Galician high clerity. At the tenth council of Toledo in 656, Fructuosus of Braga -close to circles of Visigothic power-, was led to assume the Metropolitan seat of Potamio after the renunciation of its owner, aware of the crisis of church life. At the same time the will is void left by the Bishop of Dume Recimiro, in which he donated the wealth of the diocese convent to the poor.
The crisis at the end of the Visigoths dates to the reign of Egica. The monarch appoints his son as heir Wittiza and associated during his lifetime to the throne, while the Visigothic monarchy had been traditionally elected and therefore not hereditary. This participation has resulted in granting Wittiza of the Government of Galicia, it performed as a king from his capital from Tui, until the death of his father, leading to a new conflict in the latter period of the Visigothic monarchy, and highlighting the political activity that retained Galicia hundred years after the end of the Suebi monarchy. In 702, with the death of Egica, Witiza was also the Government of ''Hispania'' until 710, moving its capital to Toledo. After his death the same year, part of the Visigothic aristocracy prevent the accession to the throne of his son.[[Roderic]] imposed by force, triggering a civil war between supporters of both sides. In [[711]], the enemies of Roderic get a Muslim army crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and faced him at the Battle of Guadalete. The defeat was the end of Roderic´s government in the Visigothic Spain (Hispania), with profound consequences for the another two historic political entities remaining: Galicia and Septimania.
In 715, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa bin Nusair wife the widow of Roderic, Egilona, known as the ''regina Spani'' (Spanish Queen), with a desire to affirm the continuity legitimately transferred to the Muslim governor who can consider themselves politically as the successors of the previous state and assume the responsibilities of the Visigoth kings of Toledo. Thus, with the domination of the entire ''Spania'' by Muslims, the emirs of Cordoba were known outside its borders, with the title of ''rex Spani'' (king of Spain). Therefore, "Spain" (Hispania/Spania) was the name referring to the Muslim land while "Galicia" (Gallicia/Gallecia and other latin forms) was for the land Christian . The Muslim historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari explained the extent of the area refers to the Muslim]] domain in Iberia during the early 8th century:
There wasn´t place in Al-Andalus which wasn´t dominated if we excepted the
country of Galicia
country of Galicia
The Regnum Christianorum of Galicia (711-791).
1. Origin
After the fall of the provinces of Spain (Spania) in the year 714, and Septimania in 719 under Muslim domain, Galicia was the unique geographical entity in the Iberian Peninsula which was not under the Muslim domination, as Georgius Agricola wrote;"This year (720), the Muslims avenged injuries suffered, entered in Spain with
a huge army and conquered all the land except Galicia."
Thus, being the only entity of the Iberian peninsula which Muslim did not conquer, Galicia maintained its socio-economic structures inherited from Germanic-late Roman Times. This territory, which extends from the Bay of Biscay to the river Douro, is no longer attached to the Government Visigothic Toledo, nor his political heir Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba, itself subject to Damascus. The decline and final disappearance of the Visigothic state caused a vacuum of central authority, ie the end of the political dependence of the peoples of the north-north-west face of the might of Toledo, and promotes the emergence of Galician, Asturian and Basque lords, who seek to enlarge their territory, both through diplomatic channels by the pacts and marriages, by the military.
In fact, despite the political convulsions of the early 8th century, church in Galicia didn´t suffer profound change, Asturias continued without bishops until the end of the 9th century, and Galician territory maintained a complete religious continuity from the Roman times in at least three dioceses -Lugo, Britonia-Mondoñedo and Iria- with bishops residing without interruption, and named in five other dioceses -Braga, Ourense, Tui, Lamego e Dume - whose owners, before the political and religious uncertainty, preferred to reside in other cities.
The lack of documents from the 8th and 9th centuries makes difficult to know the political institutions of that time. The first mention of a character with lordship attributes after the fall of the Visigoths appear in a document of the year 812, the ''Testamentum Adefonsi Regis'' (King Adephonsus´s Testament), which describes a lord called ''Pelagius'' maybe lord of the territory around Cangas de Onis to 710, who allegedly participated in a rebellion against the Muslims in Covadonga, in the region of Asturias. However, in texts such as the "Byzantine-Arab Chronicle of 741 and Continuatio Hispana (754), written in the years 741 and 754 respectively, there is no mention about Pelagius, it and the temporal big difference between the hypothetical rebellion and first notice about Pelagius, leading some contemporary historians to question seriously the importance and even existence of Pelagius and the myth-event of Covadonga. Even "The Madjmu'a Akhbar´s Muslim Chronicle" mentions the rebellion in other terms:
"Galicians, taking advantage of the civil war between Muslims in half of the 8th century,
fought against Islam and took over the county of Asturias."
fought against Islam and took over the county of Asturias."
Ajbar Machmúa, ed. Lafuente Alcántara, Madrid, 1867, p. 66
The historian Al-Maqqari mentioned it in the same way: Isa ben Ahmad Al-Razi wrote that in times of Anbasa ben Suhaim Al-Qalbi, "In the lands of Galicia, was revolted a wild donkey known as Belai (Pelagius)". However, like Christian chronicles, all them were written over a century and a half after these hypothetical events, too much time to consider these information as totally truthful. In fact, the most accurate descriptions of Pelagius, appear at the end of the 9th century, during the reign of Alphonso III, who ordered create many of those chronicles with the main objective of legitimize his royal lineage trying connect with the former Visigothic monarchy.
Development and consolidation of Galicia´s monarchy
With the death of Fafila, Alphonse III´s chronicles reported the arrival of a territorial lord from [[Cantabria]], called Alfonso, who would have married Fafila´s sister, thus expanding their little kingdom/county. So the little kingdom which started with Pelagius grows through marriage, losing its status strictly astur to be an entity in which the Christian character, and specially the same geographical area (northwest of Iberian Peninsula), were the points of union between these Cantabrian-Asturian lords who were adding and unifying their own domains with others Galician noble families. With it, this small kingdom-county in eastern Asturias which was growing, was proclaimed himself as ''Regnum Christianorum'' (Christians´ kingdom). No doubt it was the religious factor, free of direct allegiance to Emirate of CordobaCordoba, a major reason for the integration of Gallaecia´s different peoples.
Alphonse III]]´s Chronicles tried explain this territorial expansion by means of "repopulations", they suggested that Alphonse I "repopulated", "Asturias, Primorias, Liebana, Trasmiera, Sopuerta, Carranza, Bardulia and the coast of Galicia." However, the archaeological and documentary analysis has demonstrated in more recent times that the entire North and Northwestern Iberian Peninsula was always inhabited by the same people, so we don´t must understand this assertion as a human repopulation on an uninhabited land, but as an reorganization under the Northern lords, or is, in the expansion of domains of Alphonse I on some Christian peoples who lived ruled by own nobles, out of the Alphonse I´s Christian kingdom.
In the year 757, Alphonse I was succeeded by his son Froila (or "Fruela"), after he murdered his brother ''Vimara'' in disputes about inheriting the throne . Froila inherited areas of their parents and he added territories beyond the Cantabrian mountain range, having to deal with numerous rebellions, because not all noble Galician gladly accepted his authority, as shown in writing Rotense Chronicle of Alfonso III, where it says:
With the death of Fafila, Alphonse III´s chronicles reported the arrival of a territorial lord from [[Cantabria]], called Alfonso, who would have married Fafila´s sister, thus expanding their little kingdom/county. So the little kingdom which started with Pelagius grows through marriage, losing its status strictly astur to be an entity in which the Christian character, and specially the same geographical area (northwest of Iberian Peninsula), were the points of union between these Cantabrian-Asturian lords who were adding and unifying their own domains with others Galician noble families. With it, this small kingdom-county in eastern Asturias which was growing, was proclaimed himself as ''Regnum Christianorum'' (Christians´ kingdom). No doubt it was the religious factor, free of direct allegiance to Emirate of CordobaCordoba, a major reason for the integration of Gallaecia´s different peoples.
Alphonse III]]´s Chronicles tried explain this territorial expansion by means of "repopulations", they suggested that Alphonse I "repopulated", "Asturias, Primorias, Liebana, Trasmiera, Sopuerta, Carranza, Bardulia and the coast of Galicia." However, the archaeological and documentary analysis has demonstrated in more recent times that the entire North and Northwestern Iberian Peninsula was always inhabited by the same people, so we don´t must understand this assertion as a human repopulation on an uninhabited land, but as an reorganization under the Northern lords, or is, in the expansion of domains of Alphonse I on some Christian peoples who lived ruled by own nobles, out of the Alphonse I´s Christian kingdom.
In the year 757, Alphonse I was succeeded by his son Froila (or "Fruela"), after he murdered his brother ''Vimara'' in disputes about inheriting the throne . Froila inherited areas of their parents and he added territories beyond the Cantabrian mountain range, having to deal with numerous rebellions, because not all noble Galician gladly accepted his authority, as shown in writing Rotense Chronicle of Alfonso III, where it says:
After eleven years of government, Froila was murdered by a section of the nobility who was opposed him. But, his son, Alfonso (which would later be known as Alphonse II) did not heir the throne, because a nobleman called Aurelius who usurped the throne supported by an aristocracy, politically or territorially near to him, postponing the Alphonse II´s legitimate government .The origin of Aurelius, who ruled between 768 and 774 years, is uncertain, like the most of these "princeps" or lords with uncertain royal attributes. The Alphonse III´s two Chronicles have almost the same point of view, Aurelius had to deal a peasant rebellion, particularly the Rotense Chronicle explains: "In those times, men of servile status rose up in rebellion against their lords, but They defeated by the king´s diligence, they were reduced to previous servitude", due to the existence of conflicts between a new monarchy -which it wanted to domain new lands and peasant´s incomes-, and a free peasant population which it wanted keep its freedom and own land.
Dead, Aurelius, a young nobleman named Silo (774-783) inherited the throne because he was married Adosinda, daughter of Alphonse I. The fact that the rightful heir, Alphonse (future Alphonse II), he hadn´t inherited the throne, it makes think many historians that Silo had had help of the same aristocratic faction that supported the rise of Aurelius. The Alphonse III´s Chronicles tell us he was an "foreign in the land", and the fact install his court in Pravia, moving it from the eastern Asturias to the west, and from owning land in the West Galicia, sems that its origin is between Lugo and Oviedo. Diploma of King Silo, which ensures that the prince Silo had properties near the city of Lugo, reinforces the thesis of its Western origin. Although it is known that he "kept peace with Spain", the sovereign also had to face in his reign a revolt of Galician peoples, maybe the continuation of one of which those took place against the kings Froila and Aurelius.Thus the chronicle ''ad Sebastianum'' says:
With certainty the nature of this rebellion was the same as the previous ones, that is, opposition to forced integration into a higher state structure.
Again, after death of Silo, another territorial lord called Mauregatus, he inherited the throne(783-788), rebelling against officers of the palace, and provoking that Alphonse II was exiled to the land of his mother, a Basque noblewoman called ''Munia''. Some Alphonse III´s Chronicles silence sometimes his reign, and most of them, have descripted him as a tyrant and usurper. However, his reign was contemporary with the manufacture of a apostolic hymn for Saint James, and the important quarrel about Adoptionism. Finally, after Mauregatus, Vermudus I (or Bermudo I) inherited the throne and he reigned between 788 and 791. Some authors think his mother was a important Galician noblewoman, thus it would explain the decisive support which his family received from Galician lands, and in fact his access to throne had not any difficulty, and due to it, many historians assume that he had the support of the same noblemen who supported to Mauregatus. The Alphonse III´s Chronicles have tried to explain its link with the family Aurelius, explaining that he was his brother, and finally, trying to explain his origin since a Visigothic duke called Peter of Cantabria, addition there are medieval documents which ensured that married a Galician aristocrat called ''Ursinda'', granddaughter of Count Sisebut of Coimbra and the daughter of the Visigothic king Witiza, only because there was a need to make ideological establish the connection between these territorial lords and the Visigothic monarchy for legitimating their new domain, a ideologic constant during centuries.
What we know for sure is that in the year 791 he ceased to govern, and he was succeeded by Alphonse II, which presents real and authentic attributes and e government was of particular importance to Galicia.
Dead, Aurelius, a young nobleman named Silo (774-783) inherited the throne because he was married Adosinda, daughter of Alphonse I. The fact that the rightful heir, Alphonse (future Alphonse II), he hadn´t inherited the throne, it makes think many historians that Silo had had help of the same aristocratic faction that supported the rise of Aurelius. The Alphonse III´s Chronicles tell us he was an "foreign in the land", and the fact install his court in Pravia, moving it from the eastern Asturias to the west, and from owning land in the West Galicia, sems that its origin is between Lugo and Oviedo. Diploma of King Silo, which ensures that the prince Silo had properties near the city of Lugo, reinforces the thesis of its Western origin. Although it is known that he "kept peace with Spain", the sovereign also had to face in his reign a revolt of Galician peoples, maybe the continuation of one of which those took place against the kings Froila and Aurelius.Thus the chronicle ''ad Sebastianum'' says:
With certainty the nature of this rebellion was the same as the previous ones, that is, opposition to forced integration into a higher state structure.
Again, after death of Silo, another territorial lord called Mauregatus, he inherited the throne(783-788), rebelling against officers of the palace, and provoking that Alphonse II was exiled to the land of his mother, a Basque noblewoman called ''Munia''. Some Alphonse III´s Chronicles silence sometimes his reign, and most of them, have descripted him as a tyrant and usurper. However, his reign was contemporary with the manufacture of a apostolic hymn for Saint James, and the important quarrel about Adoptionism. Finally, after Mauregatus, Vermudus I (or Bermudo I) inherited the throne and he reigned between 788 and 791. Some authors think his mother was a important Galician noblewoman, thus it would explain the decisive support which his family received from Galician lands, and in fact his access to throne had not any difficulty, and due to it, many historians assume that he had the support of the same noblemen who supported to Mauregatus. The Alphonse III´s Chronicles have tried to explain its link with the family Aurelius, explaining that he was his brother, and finally, trying to explain his origin since a Visigothic duke called Peter of Cantabria, addition there are medieval documents which ensured that married a Galician aristocrat called ''Ursinda'', granddaughter of Count Sisebut of Coimbra and the daughter of the Visigothic king Witiza, only because there was a need to make ideological establish the connection between these territorial lords and the Visigothic monarchy for legitimating their new domain, a ideologic constant during centuries.
What we know for sure is that in the year 791 he ceased to govern, and he was succeeded by Alphonse II, which presents real and authentic attributes and e government was of particular importance to Galicia.
Alphonse II and the Apostolic tomb (791-842).
After a period of conflict between differents Asturian, Galicians and Basque Lords and Counts (princeps and comites) , with the reign of Alphonse II takes place a major policy shift, with him the integration of Christian nobles and their lands was peaceful. No doubt reign of Alphonse II marked an important advance in the consolidation process of the institution of monarchy. The specific Galician area had a great attention in the reign of Alphonse II. In fact this monarch spent his childhood being educated in Samos, perhaps by a Galician aristocratic family, what took place with many of the kings successors.
The truth is that there seems to had been a coincidence of political interests with the Galicians, because two historic events of great importance in his time, as are the relations of the kingdom with the Frankish kingdom and the religious crisis provoked by the Adoptionism, presumably initiated at the time of Mauregatus and lasted during the reigns of Bermudo I and the own Alphonse II. Two facts of great historical transcendence which were registered by Carolingian annals and which were silenced intentionally by chroniclers of King Alphonse III (866-910).
Thus, while the Alphonse III´s chronic cycle concealed political contacts between the monarch of Galicia and the Franks, The Frankish sources confirmed the orientation of Galicia to the synod of bishops of Regensburg in the year 782, and the Council of Frankfurt, where arrived bishops from "''Italiae, Galliae, Gothiae, Aquitaniae,Galleciae'' (Italy, Gaul, Gothia, Aquitania and Galicia) in the year 794 of the most important of all agreements at the time of Charlemagne, as the issue of Adoptionism, which affected the religious unity of the West. The Frankish annals talk about the sending of embassies and presents from Alphonse II, who was known in the "''Annales regni Francorum''" and ''Vita Karoli Magni'' as "''Hadefonsi regis Galleciae et Asturiae''" (it means, Alfonso king of Galicia and Asturias), the ''Vita Hludovici'' called him "Galletiarum principis'' (prince of Galicia) and as "rex Gallaeciae'' (King of Galicia) according to the medieval chronicle of Hermann of Reichenau written in the 11th century. In any case, relations between the Alphonse II and Charlemagne were possibly very close. Even the chronicler in 'Vita Karoli Magni'' says that when Alphonse II sent emissaries or letters to Charlemagne, Alphonse II liked to be called ''propriu sunn'', it means, its servant.
However, the most outstanding fact is that in his reign was produced the discovery or "invention" of the tomb of one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ, the Greater Santiago. This event happened at the place called Compostela, by the bishop of the diocese of Iria Teodomiro. This event had logically a very important political-religious charge, happening in a historic context in that Alphonse II need great symbols and the support of Christian allies.
In the Middle Ages "the cult of a saint and could help shape a kingdom," and thus Alphonse II decided to build a church, although that was not a work of major, it was the first stone of what later would be the Greater monument of Romanesque in Europe.
Despite this casual discover, most contemporary historians see in this event an "invention" with clear political purposes, as well as religious, mainly motivated by the religious crisis about Adoptionism and which caused the creation of a national church in Galicia, regardless of the mozarabic church of Spain (with capital in Toledo), with what was linked since the end of the Suebi monarchy (year 585).
The proponents of this position consider therefore, that the Muslim invasion was basically the factor which caused the discovery of the tomb of the apostle Santiago in Galicia, and not in Spain, because Galicia had been the unique territory in Iberia which hadn´t been conquered by Muslims. In fact, this discovery or "invention" of tomb took place in the reign of Alphonse II (791-842), but was in the period immediately predecessor when had been established the ideological foundations of what finally was the "casual" dicover of the tomb in Compostela by Teodomiro, bishop of Iria, between 818 and 847.
Both Mauregatus and Vermudo I were contemporaries of Adoptionism crisis and of the "Comments to the Apocalypse", attributed to Beatus of Liébana, and finally the creation of the first "Liturgy Anthem" specific in honor of Santiago, which is associated to the king Mauregato through an acrostic.
Alphonse II established the capital in Oviedo, mainly because this village was personal property of the monarch, and because it had not a episcopal see nor bishop with who share his authority over the future capital. Alphonse II became the first ''Rege oventese'' (King of Oviedo), dominating whole Galicia (including Asturias and Basque territories from this city. Nevertheless, it is customary to replace the historic title of ''Rege Oventese'' by "king of Asturias", title invented in Spain in the 19th century by the first romantic historians, such as Modesto Lafuente y Zamalloa, in the midst of birth of contemporary Spanish nationalism, and still in force at the beginning of the twenty-first century.
After a period of conflict between differents Asturian, Galicians and Basque Lords and Counts (princeps and comites) , with the reign of Alphonse II takes place a major policy shift, with him the integration of Christian nobles and their lands was peaceful. No doubt reign of Alphonse II marked an important advance in the consolidation process of the institution of monarchy. The specific Galician area had a great attention in the reign of Alphonse II. In fact this monarch spent his childhood being educated in Samos, perhaps by a Galician aristocratic family, what took place with many of the kings successors.
The truth is that there seems to had been a coincidence of political interests with the Galicians, because two historic events of great importance in his time, as are the relations of the kingdom with the Frankish kingdom and the religious crisis provoked by the Adoptionism, presumably initiated at the time of Mauregatus and lasted during the reigns of Bermudo I and the own Alphonse II. Two facts of great historical transcendence which were registered by Carolingian annals and which were silenced intentionally by chroniclers of King Alphonse III (866-910).
Thus, while the Alphonse III´s chronic cycle concealed political contacts between the monarch of Galicia and the Franks, The Frankish sources confirmed the orientation of Galicia to the synod of bishops of Regensburg in the year 782, and the Council of Frankfurt, where arrived bishops from "''Italiae, Galliae, Gothiae, Aquitaniae,Galleciae'' (Italy, Gaul, Gothia, Aquitania and Galicia) in the year 794 of the most important of all agreements at the time of Charlemagne, as the issue of Adoptionism, which affected the religious unity of the West. The Frankish annals talk about the sending of embassies and presents from Alphonse II, who was known in the "''Annales regni Francorum''" and ''Vita Karoli Magni'' as "''Hadefonsi regis Galleciae et Asturiae''" (it means, Alfonso king of Galicia and Asturias), the ''Vita Hludovici'' called him "Galletiarum principis'' (prince of Galicia) and as "rex Gallaeciae'' (King of Galicia) according to the medieval chronicle of Hermann of Reichenau written in the 11th century. In any case, relations between the Alphonse II and Charlemagne were possibly very close. Even the chronicler in 'Vita Karoli Magni'' says that when Alphonse II sent emissaries or letters to Charlemagne, Alphonse II liked to be called ''propriu sunn'', it means, its servant.
However, the most outstanding fact is that in his reign was produced the discovery or "invention" of the tomb of one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ, the Greater Santiago. This event happened at the place called Compostela, by the bishop of the diocese of Iria Teodomiro. This event had logically a very important political-religious charge, happening in a historic context in that Alphonse II need great symbols and the support of Christian allies.
In the Middle Ages "the cult of a saint and could help shape a kingdom," and thus Alphonse II decided to build a church, although that was not a work of major, it was the first stone of what later would be the Greater monument of Romanesque in Europe.
Despite this casual discover, most contemporary historians see in this event an "invention" with clear political purposes, as well as religious, mainly motivated by the religious crisis about Adoptionism and which caused the creation of a national church in Galicia, regardless of the mozarabic church of Spain (with capital in Toledo), with what was linked since the end of the Suebi monarchy (year 585).
The proponents of this position consider therefore, that the Muslim invasion was basically the factor which caused the discovery of the tomb of the apostle Santiago in Galicia, and not in Spain, because Galicia had been the unique territory in Iberia which hadn´t been conquered by Muslims. In fact, this discovery or "invention" of tomb took place in the reign of Alphonse II (791-842), but was in the period immediately predecessor when had been established the ideological foundations of what finally was the "casual" dicover of the tomb in Compostela by Teodomiro, bishop of Iria, between 818 and 847.
Both Mauregatus and Vermudo I were contemporaries of Adoptionism crisis and of the "Comments to the Apocalypse", attributed to Beatus of Liébana, and finally the creation of the first "Liturgy Anthem" specific in honor of Santiago, which is associated to the king Mauregato through an acrostic.
Alphonse II established the capital in Oviedo, mainly because this village was personal property of the monarch, and because it had not a episcopal see nor bishop with who share his authority over the future capital. Alphonse II became the first ''Rege oventese'' (King of Oviedo), dominating whole Galicia (including Asturias and Basque territories from this city. Nevertheless, it is customary to replace the historic title of ''Rege Oventese'' by "king of Asturias", title invented in Spain in the 19th century by the first romantic historians, such as Modesto Lafuente y Zamalloa, in the midst of birth of contemporary Spanish nationalism, and still in force at the beginning of the twenty-first century.
Ramire´s Dinasty (842-866).
The founder of the dynasty Ramirez, Ramiro I (842-850), made history as an energetic monarch. Medieval authors have called him ''Virga Iustitiae'' (rod of justice) for his prompt victory over those rebelled against him. Paradoxically, he accessed to the throne at the head of a rebellion against the legitimate heir, Nepotian, brother of Alphonse II, who was supported by the nobility of the former Eastern Gallaecia (Asturias and the Basques territories), as reported by the Chronicle Abeldensis and Chronicle Rotensis.According to chronicles, Ramiro was seeking a wife in ''Bardulia'' (one of the territories comprising the former province of Bardulia or Castile), but when he took the throne must go Nepotian west of Galicia, Lugo around to meet with Galician aristocrats, supporters of his cause that supported its accession to the throne and defeated Nepotian. After gathering a large military contingent, went to Asturias.
On the way from Oviedo, was the first confrontation between Nepotian and Ramiro I and precisely at a place called the ''Curniana'' (Cornellana) on the cover of the river Narcea (a tributary of Nalon), where Galician Ramiro´s army defeated to Asturian and Basque armies of Nepotian in the Battle of the Bridge of Cornellana, according to the Chronicle Sebastianum:Cui Nepotianus occurrit ad pontem fluuii Narcea adgregata manu asturiensium et vasconum'' (Nepotian went to the bridge over river Narcea with Asturian and Basque supporting). In 842, finally Ramiro I extended its authority over Oviedo and, finally, over region of Asturias.
The confrontation between Nepotian and Ramiro was basically a civil war born of particular territories. Ramiro´s military support relied mainly on two important Galician Counts (Sonna and Scipio) but had no intention to create a new throne in Galician land, only to capture the throne already installed in Oviedo. The evidence seems to be building a palace on Santa María del Naranco, a few kilometers from the court of Oviedo, which, according to a recent study by the University of Oviedo, would probably had served as court alternative for receptions and judicial and that Ramiro and his supporters would had settled before the capture of Nepotian.
Ramiro managed to remain on the throne and be a key element of a dynasty beginning with Vermudus I, and which continued through male lineage to the 11th century. Most historians defends the decisive importance of Galician aristocracy for the victory of the candidate. Thus, Ramón Menéndez Pidal noted that "with Ramiro I, Galicians prevailed in the monarchy, close conclusion to Vicente Risco, when he notes in his "History of Galicia" that "from Ramiro I, Galicia (Galicians´ territory) began its predominance in the Western Kingdom. In addition, during the reign of this monarch began a territorial expansion that stops at the end of the 9th century with the incorporation of cities and lands of the Douro Valley.
So, Ordonius (the Ramiro´s son) inherited the throne after death of Ramiro in the year 850 under the name Ordonius I;
Ramiro managed to remain on the throne and be a key element of a dynasty beginning with Vermudus I, and which continued through male lineage to the 11th century. Most historians defends the decisive importance of Galician aristocracy for the victory of the candidate. Thus, Ramón Menéndez Pidal noted that "with Ramiro I, Galicians prevailed in the monarchy, close conclusion to Vicente Risco, when he notes in his "History of Galicia" that "from Ramiro I, Galicia (Galicians´ territory) began its predominance in the Western Kingdom. In addition, during the reign of this monarch began a territorial expansion that stops at the end of the 9th century with the incorporation of cities and lands of the Douro Valley.
So, Ordonius (the Ramiro´s son) inherited the throne after death of Ramiro in the year 850 under the name Ordonius I;
''mortuus est Ranimirus filius Veremudi rex Gallecie et filius eius Ordonius successit in regno''
Ordonius I reigned for sixteen years, he extended royal authority until city of Leon, Astorga, Tui and Patricia Amaia as explained the Alphonse III´s Chronicles. Under his reign, Galician coast was seriously threatened by a wave of Viking invasions, which were avoided by Count Petrus. Ordonius I started with the great movement of territorial expansion of the second half of the 9th century, with the integration of Southern Galicia in the ''Christianorum Regnum'' (Christians´ Kingdom), work which was completed by his son Alphonse III.
Alphonse III and the neo-gothicism (866-910).
With the death of Ordonius I in year 866, Alphonse III began his reign of, with this monarch, the political apparatus get a significant affirmation to establish easier than the last times the power of the monarchy, maintaining it throughout the 9th century. There are two most prominent political events to highlight during his reign, by a hand in the second half of the 9th century, the territories located between Miño and Douro were incorporated to the ''Christianorum Regnum'', and secondly the development of ideological artifacts needed to consolidate its political legitimacy and the pillars of the nascent state.This last point will be the most important innovation created during his reign, so the King Alphonse III´s efforts to impose the legitimacy of their political authority were guided to demonstrate the existence of a hereditary line unbroken precedent not only for 8th and 9th centuries, even before to year 711 to connect himself directly with the former kings, that is, with the Visigoths, and so, to get be considered the natural successor by inheritance away. For this objetive, had to be created a sequence of kings (real or fake) able to fill the empty history of the 8th century, and also present them as part of a lineage that presumably would have begun with Leovigild and the Visigoths kings in the 6th century, that political ideology is called neo-gothicism (new-gothicism).
Thus, under the command of Alphonse III were performed two chronicles in circles close to the court: Codex Vigilanus or ''Codex Conciliorum Albeldensis seu Vigilanu'' written between the years 881 and 883 (although the only copies of which are now available in the late 10th century) and known as "The Chronicle of Alfonso III" of which there are two versions, the ''Chronica ad Sebastianum'' and ''Chronica Rotensis''.
This last chronicle even puts into the own Pelagius´s mouth, the expression: ''Spes nostra (...) sit Spanie salus et Gotorum gentis exercitus reparatus'' (our hope for restoring the Visigothic army and recovering Spania). With this cycle chroniclers, Aphonse III tried to potentiate the religious connection that the old Visigothic monarchy had in common with the new monarchy what was growing in the medieval Galicia, against the Muslim established power in Cordoba. These chronicles try to connect Pelagius personally with the old Visigothic kings, an interested line of succession that in any case would have been even smaller than the legitimacy of Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, who was married with the last Visigothic queen, Egilon, and therefore legitimate lord of Spain, transfering this dignity to his sucessors in Cordoba.
The kings of Galicia with capital in Oviedo and their predecessors, were intentionally showed by Alphonse III´s chronicles as restorers of the Visigothic kingdom thanks to the rebellion started in Asturias, transfering the legacy of the Visigothic monarchy of Toledo to the Galician monarchy of Oviedo with the help of "Provindence".
However, the historical evidence (archaeological and documentary) show the amply falsity of this interested manipulation, even the ''Cronica Rotensis'' stated that at the same time were repopulated itself Asturias and sea areas of Galicia, an irrationality wich pretended to submit an unpopulated area (totally denied by the Archeaology), and awarding its restoration to predecessors kings, who had never performed those events. The neogoticism was the most popular ingredient of the chronicles of the time of King Alphonse III, introducing an enduring myth in time, it would be, either by ignorance or by interest, considered as a reliable source by many Spanish authors from the 9th century.
Capital traslation to Leon (910).
The consolidation of the monarchy motivated that around the year 910, monarchs decided to move their court from Oviedo to Leon. Economic factors were undoubtedly crucials in that decision: in one hand, it gave an impetus to human and commercial routes which connected Galicia with France and ''Spania'' (Al-Andalus) (with great economic relevance).
Leon, located in Galicia since the Roman Empire had a privileged location at the confluence between two important roads: in one hand, the road wich linked the ancient Suebi-Galician capital (Braga) with Bordeaux (through Astorga and other important cities), and the Silver Route, which arrived to Galicia from ''Spania'' (Al-Andalus), from the cities of Seville and Mérida.
In addition, Leon had not a bishop (in contrast to the nearby town of Astorga which it had), nor feudal lords, -as was the case for the choice of Oviedo- this former Roman camp called Castra Legionis or Legio (Roman Legion), was an ideal and free center for the installation of the new court of Galicia.
As a result of the transfer of the throne, the kings of the whole of Galicia abandoned the title Ovetensis (from Oviedo) for change by Legionensis, ( from or in ''Legio'' or Leon), alluding to Legio (city), where was situated the new royal seat.
Leon, a city strategically useful, situated in high-medieval Galicia, as the Christian and Muslim medieval documents confirm: in civitate que vocitatur Legio, territorio Gallecie (in the city called Leon, territory of Galicia) or in Legione de Galletia (in Leon of Galicia), became the beginning of the 10th century in the new capital of the kingdom of Galicia.
The consolidation of the monarchy motivated that around the year 910, monarchs decided to move their court from Oviedo to Leon. Economic factors were undoubtedly crucials in that decision: in one hand, it gave an impetus to human and commercial routes which connected Galicia with France and ''Spania'' (Al-Andalus) (with great economic relevance).
Leon, located in Galicia since the Roman Empire had a privileged location at the confluence between two important roads: in one hand, the road wich linked the ancient Suebi-Galician capital (Braga) with Bordeaux (through Astorga and other important cities), and the Silver Route, which arrived to Galicia from ''Spania'' (Al-Andalus), from the cities of Seville and Mérida.
In addition, Leon had not a bishop (in contrast to the nearby town of Astorga which it had), nor feudal lords, -as was the case for the choice of Oviedo- this former Roman camp called Castra Legionis or Legio (Roman Legion), was an ideal and free center for the installation of the new court of Galicia.
As a result of the transfer of the throne, the kings of the whole of Galicia abandoned the title Ovetensis (from Oviedo) for change by Legionensis, ( from or in ''Legio'' or Leon), alluding to Legio (city), where was situated the new royal seat.
Leon, a city strategically useful, situated in high-medieval Galicia, as the Christian and Muslim medieval documents confirm: in civitate que vocitatur Legio, territorio Gallecie (in the city called Leon, territory of Galicia) or in Legione de Galletia (in Leon of Galicia), became the beginning of the 10th century in the new capital of the kingdom of Galicia.
